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TENNYSON'S 
DEBT TO ENVIRONMENT 



TENNYSON'S 



DEBT TO ENVIRONMENT 



^ Stutig of ^Tmnsson's EnQlanti as 
an JntrotJuction to i)is ^ocms 



BY . c 

WILLIAM G. WARD 

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN SYRACUSE 

UNIVERSITY, AND IN THE EMERSON COLLEGE 

OF ORATORY, BOSTON 



-jUS OF COAfl^^^ 



ROBERTS BROTHER 




1898 



2ncl COPY, 
1898. 






Copyright, 1S9S, 
By Roberts Brothers. 



All rights reserved. 






C^ I Z- 10^0 



John Wilson and Son, Cambridge, U.S.A. 



CONTENTS. 



Pagb 

The Man 7 

The Point of View 15 

'"" The Influences of Nature 19 

The Inspiration of Romance 27 

The Discipline of Sorrow ...... 32 

The Rewards of Success 40 

Contact with World Ideas 48 

The Environment of the Sea 64 

The Company of the Immortals .... 59 

Part 11. 

Study of the Minor Poems 67 

The Study of In Memoriam 70 

The Study of the Idylls of the King . 86 

Short Chronology and Bibliography . . 95 



Tennyson's 
Debt to Environment 



I. 

THE MAN. 

IT is now forty-five years since Alfred 
Tennyson, the newly appointed Lau- 
reate, was called upon to write his Ode 
on the Death of the Duke of Welling- 
ton. We must remember what the 
name of Wellington stood for. The 
man who had conquered successively 
nearly all Napoleon's marshals finally 
met the master himself, and added a 
new word to our vocabulary. 

We can hardly understand what 
England does for a man whom she 
would honor, as she honored Welling- 
ton. Living, there is no triumph too 



8 Tennyso7ts Debt to Environment 

great for him. The nation triumphs in 
him and through him. And now that 
he was dead, he was to be buried in St. 
Paul's Cathedral with such a pageant as 
England seldom had seen. 

The Ode which commemorates the 
event must shadow forth all the phases 
of England's feeling ; consequently it has 
several distinct movements. After the 
successive introductions and the address 
to the personality of Wellington, the 
first strong movement describes the ap- 
proach to St. Paul's. It throbs and 
reverberates with the tone of slow and 
solemn events incident to the progress 
of the procession. 

On reaching the Cathedral, this 
movement is interrupted by the spirit 
of Nelson, w^ho asks the meaning of 
this tumult breaking on his rest. The 
answer is a glorification of both Nelson 
and Wellington, ending in the much 
stronger and more elevated sentiment 
of part seven. 



The Man 9 

The great man is the highest expres- 
sion of the life of a people, with this 
difference, — the man dies while the 
nation lives. Part seven is a trium- 
phant strain of rejoicing in the existence 
of the English people. It is worthy of 
comparison with the tribute which 
Shakespeare puts into the mouth of 
John of Gaunt in " King Richard the 
Second," or with St. Crispin's day in 
"King Henry the Fifth." 

With the next movement occurs a 
transition as remarkable as any in our 
literature. We are made to feel that 
we have reached the interior of St. 
Paul's. All the martial music and the 
stately progress of the procession dis- 
appears. Nothing more is heard of the 
rejoicing in the majesty of the English 
people. We are made aware that the 
hushed and sacred stillness of the great 
temple has silenced all the jarring 
sounds of earth. We no longer think 
of the great man as an inhabitant of 



10 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

our planet. It is the soul of the man 
and the world of the unseen which now 
claim our thought. The uplifting power 
of sacred music, and the d3rQamic forces 
which shaped the universe, are called up 
to remind us that, after all, we know of 
nothing greater than the soul. 

It is different, however, with the 
body. The rising tide of music, setting 
toward eternity, suddenly changes to 
the wail of the dead march, as the black 
earth yawns and the mortal disappears. 
Until now he has given us no sugges- 
tion of a sepulchre, though he does not 
mean to pass that by. The man is 
human, and there is something inex- 
pressibly sacred to us, even in the 
resting place of his dust. But he does 
not mean to leave us with the dust. 

Infinitely more than stone and mortar 
is embodied in a national Walhalia like 
St. Paul's. The stately pile is glorified 
by the ideas which gather round it, — 
the strength, the confidence, the repose, 



The Man 11 

the light and hope suggested by the 
airy expanse of vault and dome. All 
this and more was grasped by the Laure- 
ate when he closed his grand poem with 
those wonderful lines, — 

" And in the vast cathedral leave him. 
God accept him, Christ receive him." 

No idle praise, but a perfect recognition 
of the greatness of the man and the 
worthiness of the sepulchre ; suggesting, 
moreover, that it is unnecessary to have 
a great tomb unless you have a great 
man to inter. Better the man without 
the cathedral, than the cathedral with- 
out the man ; though England has many 
of both. 

We have many great men, and, as 
Americans, we can better understand 
what is meant, by asking ourselves the 
question, What would we not have 
given for a suitable place in which to 
bury Lincoln ? Not that any monu- 
ment could equal the breadth of his 



12 Tennyson s Debt to Eitvironment 

sympathy, the nobility of his character ; 
but that we love to possess an earthly 
resting place of suitable relative value. 

Just how much we love this idea and 
how grateful we are for it can be better 
understood when we take, for example, 
a man of our own day, — one whom we 
personally love. Let forty years pass 
by after the death of the Duke of 
Wellington, and all of them Victorian 
years at that, — years full of great men 
and of great events. When forty years 
had flown, Tennyson himself was dead, 
and all the world knew where he was 
to be buried. 

For England has a vaster, if not a 
grander, cathedral than St. Paul's, — one 
which no earthly fame can enhance and 
no human reputation can much further 
ennoble. It is the roof tree of all our 
race, — Westminster. Henceforth it will 
seem a little nearer to us if it shall add 
to its trust not only a Tennyson, but an 
Arthur and a Round Table. 



The Man 13 

When the day arrived for his inter- 
ment, the people were not wanting. 
Long before the time for the services, the 
multitudes began to assemble. Vast 
crowds were now massed on all sides of 
the cathedral, but only the few could 
enter. The doors of the Abbey opened 
only to those who held tickets, for the 
audience was to represent the distin- 
guished men of every country where 
the English language is spoken. 

Many carried floral oferings. The 
cathedral already contained a mass of 
beautiful flowers. In the Jerusalem 
Chamber, adjoining the entrance, were 
hundreds of chaplets and crosses. The 
Queen had sent a wreath of laurel leaves, 
and also an indestructible metallic wreath 
of laurel. The trustees of Shakespeare's 
birthplace had sent a laurel wreath from 
Shakespeare's grave, to be placed on the 
coffin. 

Among the rest was a wreath which 
possessed more interest for an American 



14 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

than any other. It was made by Mrs. 
Gladstone, from sweet-smelling leaves 
in the Gladstone gardens at Hawarden. 
The card attached to it bore the simple 
inscription, — 

" And in the vast cathedral leave him. 
God accept him, Christ receive him. " 

It is evident that the Gladstones, 
guided by a lifelong affection, had seized 
upon the right idea. All that the poet 
had said so skilfully, in his early poem, 
could be said with equal truthfulness of 
himself. The spiritual ideas for which 
the cathedral stands, as the proper rest- 
ing place for the great man, find instant 
recognition in all hearts when the name 
of Tennyson is mentioned. The lofty 
dignity and repose, the strength, the sin- 
cerity, the purity of heart and mind, and 
the light of hope in the future, — all are 
there, in harmony, in peace. 



TJie Point of View 15 



II. 
THE POINT OF VIEW. 

IT may be seen from the foregoing 
chapter that these pages are not to 
be an effort to belittle Tennyson's genius, 
or to account for it. Genius is the gift 
of God. If ever such a gift was bestowed 
upon mortal, it was given to Alfred 
Tennyson. His spirit is not to be 
measured by ready made standards, or 
to be judged by precedent ; least of all 
is it to be accounted for by any theory 
of soil or climate. 

Yet he was subject to the influence 
of his surroundings. The ordinary man 
may take but little note of his inherit^ 
ance in earth and air and sky, or in the 
world of institutions or of men. But to 
a sensitive soul like Tennyson environ- 



16 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

ment means more than to any one else. 
He responds to many delicate influences 
which a poet alone can appreciate. 

Indeed, this responsiveness may be 
called the mission of the poet. He is a 
seer who beholds the affairs of men with 
superior insight. He reflects the thought 
and passion of his day as future genera- 
tions will see them. As Mrs. Browning 
says, " The poet is the only truth-teller 
left to God," the only one who records 
human events as God sees them. 

If this may be true of any great poet, 
why then emphasize it in the case of 
Tennyson ? For many reasons, and first 
of all, because he never changed his sub- 
ject. He spent his life in describing his 
own immediate surroundings. This was 
more true of him than of any other 
modern poet. It therefore becomes the 
best point of view for observing his 
writings. 

Another reason is because his environ- 
ment was England. While Ruskin and 



The Point of View 17 

Browning were revealing to us Italy, 
Tennyson found his mission at home. 
He never forgot that he was an English- 
man. How deeply he loved his land, 
we all know who are interested in his 
writings; one cannot read them and 
fail of being interested in the England 
which he loved, — the England which 
we love. 

He did not love her faults. No one 
has been more bitter than he against 
that in England which was unworthy to 
be loved. His denunciation of her short- 
comings is unparalleled in literature, 
except by Dante's scorn for the weak- 
nesses of Italy. He was jealous for the 
honor of his land. As Laureate he had 
marked opportunities for knowing his 
subject. It is doubtful if any other 
Laureate ever stood so close to the best 
thought of his day. He knew England 
as it was, also as it wished to be. He 
never hesitated to add what it ought 
to be. 



18 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

During his last forty years he was the 
most conspicuous man of his generation. 
In spite of all his natural love of retire- 
ment^ he was compelled to stand in the 
glare of " that fierce light which beats 
upon a throne." All his actions were 
projected against the background of the 
great church and state of England. 
A smaller man would have been rendered 
ridiculous. Tennyson was great enough 
to sustain his part without an effort. 



The Influences of Nature 19 



IIL 

THE INFLUENCES OF NATURE. 

AMONGr the poets Tennyson is one 
of our greatest realists. He 
seems informed with the scientific spirit. 
The accuracy and truthfulness of his de- 
scriptions have been remarked by all 
the critics who have examined his sub- 
ject matter. His pictures of nature are 
drawn with few and simple lines, often 
suggesting more than they portray. 

This method with nature is very 
agreeable to the modern man. The long 
descriptions of natural objects and of 
scenery, which were so common in his 
day, seem to us now a distortion. It is 
remarkable that with his wonderful ap- 
preciation of nature he succeeded so well 
in avoiding this mistake. 



20 Tennyso7ts Debt to Environment 

It is probable that he owed the fidel- 
ity of his nature poetry to Lincolnshire. 
Had he lived in a country with more 
rugged features he might not have ac- 
quired his minute realism. It was the 
very lack of variety which gave him his 
habits of close observation. Lincoln- 
shire is not very interesting when con- 
sidered as scenery; nor is it really as 
dull as some seem to think. The fen- 
country, which includes much of the 
eastern part, is dull enough, being abso- 
lutely level ; but between this and Som- 
ersby is the Wold, which is a long ridge 
of chalky hills several miles in width. 

Scattered over the Wold are numer- 
ous villages, very small in size and 
often very close together. Their names 
alone are a study for an American, 
abounding as they do in thorpe and hy, 
Tealby, Kuckland, Salmonby, Bag En- 
derby, Sutterby, Cawthorpe, Sausthorpe, 
Claythorpe, Driby, Claxby, Kirksby, 
Oxby, — such are some of the names 



The Influences of Nahire 21 

which may be found within a radius of 
a few miles. 

Somersby was one of these villages, 
having not more than fifty or sixty in- 
habitants. It was not only small, but 
remote. Indeed, the whole region was 
removed from the ordinary routes of 
trade, and quite as isolated as any that 
could be found in England. The near- 
est market towns were six or eight miles 
away. Boston, to which the boys some- 
times walked, was distant nearly twenty 
miles. 

Here it was that Alfred Tennyson was 
brought up, and here his family resided 
until six years after he had left Cam- 
bridge. If it was remote from towns, it 
was near to hedgerows, and to winding 
lanes, or gardens 

'- ' bower'd close, 
With plaited alleys of the trailing rose, 
Long alleys falling down to twilight grots 
Or opening upon level plots 
Of crowned lilies, standing near 
Purple spiked lavender : 



22 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

Whither in after life, retired 

From brawling storms, 

From weary wind, 

With youthful fancy reinspired. 

We may hold converse with all forms 

Of the many sided mind." 

Next to the gently rolling hills, the 
most important feature of the landscape 
is the brook. From its source to Gib- 
raltar Point, where it empties into the 
North Sea, it has an air line length of 
perhaps twenty miles. There are not 
so many thorpes, nor are there any 
graylings, but with these exceptions it 
answers well enough to the description 
of the famous brook of the poem. 
Certainly Philip's farm is there, and 
why should we look for any better 
identification ? 

The education of the boys was con- 
ducted by their father, who seems to 
have had the good sense to leave them 
without unnecessary restraint. They 
roamed at will over all parts of the 



The Influences of Nature 23 

country, until all its features were ob- 
served and printed indelibly upon their 
memories. Their country breeding 
would seem to have been almost the 
ideal preparation for the work which 
was before them. They were stalwart, 
manly boys, and decidedly athletic; all 
stories to the contrary being founded on 
a misapprehension which has mistaken 
shyness for delicacy. 

When the boys went to Cambridge 
their companions did not fail to notice 
a certain modesty and backwardness, 
which might easily be explained by their 
previous isolation. Like other students, 
they had their breakfast in their rooms, 
and for dinner went to the great hall of 
the College. More than once they were 
seen coming to the door of the dining- 
hall, standing for a while undecided, and 
then going away hungry, rather than face 
the embarrassment of walking across the 
dining-room to their seats at the table. 

They probably did not know how 



24 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

iiopeful a characteristic they were ex- 
hibiting to all who knew the human 
heart. Modesty, even diffidence, will 
not be ranked as a fault with a boy in 
his teens ; even if it exists in so marked 
a degree as properly to be called shyness. 
With their timidity regarding social re- 
quirements, their country breeding had 
brought them also unnumbered elements 
of character of which they were totally 
unconscious, — elements essential to 
their future development, which no sub- 
sequent training could have supplied. 

Subsequent training, however, could 
supply all that was now lacking, and 
that training was found in Cambridge. 
Friendships here formed were of the 
most fortunate kind. They fell into a 
group of young men, all of whom seem 
to have possessed unusual talent, and 
many of them unusual worth and seri- 
ousness. Chief among them was Arthur 
Hallam, who became the most intimate 
friend of Alfred Tennyson. 



The Influences of Nature 25 

Hallam seemed to supply everything 
which Tennyson lacked. He had been 
brought up in London, and had travelled 
on the Continent, residing some time in 
Italy; he also had the acquaintance 
with society and with literature which 
made him the ideal complement of his 
friend. In turn Hallam became the 
student of nature and spent a great deal 
of his time at Somersby, where Tenny- 
son seems to have associated him with 
the countryside almost as thoroughly as 
he had his own father. 

Love of nature once acquired can 
never be lost. Tennyson had no desire 
to lose it. During all his subsequent life 
he kept close to nature's heart. Though 
often in London, his residence was 
nearly always in the country, — first 
at High Beech, in the Epping Forest, 
afterwards at Tunbridge and Twicken- 
ham. In later life his famous residences 
at Freshwater on the Isle of Wight, and 
at Aldworth in Surrey, gave him com- 



26 Temiysons Debt to Environment 

panionsliip with nature in its most at- 
tractive forms. Both the land and the 
sea were his. He never failed to give 
reverent worship to their nobility. 

It may be said that his view of na- 
tm^e was original. He was not only a 
realist, but an idealist; and both his 
realism and idealism were his own. He 
did not attribute to nature the same 
kind of life which is found in the early 
poets of the romance school, but he did 
give it a vitality of its own, and of his 
own. His nature is not lifeless, for it is 
always associated with the life of man. 
The degree to which nature can be 
spiritualized, aside from its relations to 
the human soul, is largely subjective 
with each individual. The great major- 
ity of mankind, however much they 
may sympathize with the more lofty 
idealization of Wordsworth, will recog- 
nize the truthfulness and sanity of the 
view of nature given us by Tennyson. 



The Inspiration of Romance 27 



IV. 
THE INSPIRATION OF ROMANCE. 

THE acquaintance with Arthur 
Hallam brought Tennyson into a 
new phase of the world of romance. 
Hallam had been in Italy, and he not 
only began to teach Italian to Tenny- 
son's sister, but he had an equal mission 
to Tennyson himself. This was found 
in Alfieri and in Italian literature. 

Still better, the Hallams had a sum- 
mer residence at Clevedon on the Sev- 
ern. Here, within sight of Clevedon, 
and within easy walking distance, was 
that network of British and Roman 
fortresses which make up the English 
wonderland, now known to us as the 
Arthurian country. 

The antiquities of England are largely 



28 Temiyson ^s Debt to Environment 

crowded into this region. The steady 
movements of one conquering race after 
another, from East to West, has made 
this the common battle ground of all 
our' ancestors. Here each race made 
its final stand against the Eastern or 
Southern invader. Each race has built 
its defensive works upon the ruins of 
the race preceding, until the country is 
a network of antiquities unparalleled in 
historic interest by any other equal ter- 
ritory on the planet. 

The oldest of all, and of unknown 
antiquity, are the works of the Druids. 
Next after them were the Belgic Gauls, 
who occupied this region a century or 
two before the days of Julius Caesar. 
Then came the Roman monuments, 
which are far more numerous here than 
in any other part of the island. Lastly 
arose the British fortresses built in 
Arthur's day, as a defence against the 
slow but sure progress of the Anglo- 
Saxon. 



The Inspiration of Romance 29 

Here are all the localities of the 
Arthurian world. Here are Glaston- 
bury and the Isle of Avilon. Here are 
Amesbury and Saurum. Here is the 
probable site of Camelot ; and across 
the Severn at Caerleon, in Wales, is 
another possible site. Here are the 
Usk and the "babbling Wey," as well 
as the castle of Tintagel and the haunts 
of Tristram and Isolt. 

Tennyson's mind had been awakened 
long before by the romance of Arthur. 
As a child he and his brothers had en- 
acted the history of the Knights, in 
quest and tournament, as told by Mal- 
lory. Tennyson had also become a 
famous narrator of all sorts of romance, 
for the entertainment of his brothers 
and sisters. Nevertheless, Hallam's ac- 
quaintance with the literature and the 
antiquities of the Arthurian country 
must have been a great stimulation. 

We are certain from his own account 
that Tennyson made long foot tours 



30 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

through all this region, studying care- 
fully all that could be learned by obser- 
vation and by tradition. Once he met 
with an accident which detained him 
six weeks, and during his detention he 
made so many friends that, after his 
recovery, they sent him forward on his 
journey, from house to house of their 
acquaintance. 

The journal of his visit to this region 
is very brief and condensed; but it is 
of great significance to one who has 
followed in his footsteps, and knows the 
meaning of all its reference. In this 
way he came to know the country, not 
simply as it might be known to the 
ordinary traveller, but as the common 
people knew it, with all their traditions 
and local associations. 

The germs thus planted in Tennyson's 
mind became a source of steady growth 
throughout the rest of his life. The 
Arthurian legends had evidently im- 
pressed him powerfully, as they had 



The Inspiration of Roma7ice 31 

many another of our literary men ; but 
to none other did they continue to be a 
steady source of interest. Many of his 
early poems are preliminary studies of 
characteristics which he here discovered. 
By middle life they had rounded into 
some of the noblest work which he has 
ever accomplished; whereas the final 
results which he was to gather within 
this field were not attained until nearly 
the close of his career. 



32 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 



V. 

THE DISCIPLINE OF SORROW. 



s 



ORROW is probably a part of the 
discipline of every great man. 



" Who never ate his bread with tears, 
He knows you not, ye heavenly powers." 

Certainly sorrow held a large part in 
the development of Tennyson's middle 
life. We can hardly imagine what the 
influences of Tennyson would be with- 
out his best known characteristic^ as it 
is expressed in " In Memoriam." 

Tennyson always possessed a serious 
and somewhat grave disposition. Eacial 
influence may account for part of it; 
and the difference between the North 
and the South of England may have 
had its influence. This difference is 



The Discipli7ie of Sorrow 33 

clearly pointed out in '-' The Princess," 
as Tennyson apprehended it. Whether 
or not it has any pronounced existence, 
it is not out of harmony with the fancies 
which literature has ascribed to climatic 
influence. 

But the share of sorrow which fell to 
Tennyson was larger than may be ac- 
counted for by any of the usual reasons. 
His residence at Cambridge was inter- 
rupted by the death of his father. This 
circumstance seemed to preclude his 
return to the University. The family 
continued to reside at Somersby for a 
few years, but their circumstances were 
very much changed. The main depend- 
ence of the family had been the pro- 
fession of the elder Tennyson, who was 
E-ector of Somersby and of three other 
neighboring churches. 

The small patrimony of the family 
was barely sufficient to meet their actual 
requirements. This was especially true 
of Alfred, whose chosen profession of 



34 Te7inysons Debt to Eiiviroiime^tt 

poet and man of letters had as yet but 
little promise in the way of pecuniary 
returns. He had a high sense of his 
mission, and he determined to follow his 
inspiration with singleness of purpose, 
even if the outlook did seem unpromis- 
ing, not to say hazardous. ^ 

A greater reverse, if possible, was 
still in store for him. Arthur Hallam 
died a year and a half after the death 
of his father. The affection between 
the two young men has no parallel in 
recent history. They were not only 
friends, but companions. Hallam was 
the most outspoken defender of Tenny- 
son's genius; and Tennyson seemed to 
have understood fully the value of Hal- 
lam's friendship. Beside this, Hallam 
was engaged to Tennyson's sister, and 
was often found in the Somersby home. 

Hall am' s death was peculiarly sudden 
and shocking. Its effect upon the 
Tennyson household is not easily de- 
scribed. It was many months before 



The Discipline of Sorrow 35 

Tennyson's sister was again seen by lier 
friends, and years did not efface the 
bereavement in the mind and heart of 
the poet. We now know that it was 
seventeen years before his mind had 
formulated his innermost sentiments 
upon this subject. The changes which 
came to him during these years can 
only be told by the poem itself. 

" In Memoriam " is the most expres- 
sive monument which has ever been 
erected to the memory of a man. It is 
also one of the most remarkable pieces 
of self-revelation which can be found in 
literature. So natural is it, however, 
and so true to the experience of man, 
that it will always be read while the 
English language is spoken. The time 
must come in the experience of almost 
every one who speaks our language 
when this poem becomes his chief coun- 
sellor and guide. It reveals to us the 
nature of our own experiences, and 
shows us the only path by which we 



36 Tennysoiis Debt to Environment 

may escape from the anguisli of be- 
reavement. 

The first part describes the simple 
effect of death, as seen in the lives of 
those surviving^. The nature of the 
sudden shock and its stupefj'ing effects, 
as they are found in the experiences of 
all men, are fully set forth in the open- 
ing sections. We see him as he meets 
all the exigencies which are common to 
manldnd in this well known experience. 

In the second part, the same atmos- 
phere remains. ^Ye find all the expe- 
riences which we have associated with 
bereavement, except despair. Tennyson 
never allows himself to yield to de- 
spondency, or even to complain. The 
mind, however, begins to employ itself 
with the question, '- How fares it with 
the happy dead ? " We are sure to find 
hope in any answer which Tennyson 
gives to this question, and it is exactly 
at this point that the great merit and 
utility of the poem is found. 



The Discipline of Sorrow 37 

In England the early half of this 
century was as pre-eminently an age of 
doubt, as this half is the age of faith. 
It was a transition period, in the minds 
of men, with regard to almost every 
question of faith ; no belief was assailed 
more persistently than the doctrine of 
man's immortality. Hence the signifi- 
cance of the second part of the poem. 

The third part shows us the method 
by which the heart achieves its own 
deliverance. Doubt has vanished, but 
sorrow remains. He sees clearly that it 
must remain, and can never be anything 
else than sorrow. But he determines 
that sorrow shall find a nobler use in 
picturing the growth which must go on 
in the mind and soul of immortal man. 
He questions whether Hallam's mind 
looks back to the life here, as some 
divinely gifted man might remember 
his own childhood. He imagines the 
earthly fame which might have been 
Hallam's had he lived; and pictures 



38 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

his probable life had he remained on 
earth. 

In part fourth, he discovers a new 
interest in life from the memories of his 
friend, and from communion with his 
spirit. These memories and these com- 
munions seem to cluster round the part- 
ing days of their life at the old home in 
Somersby. The time has come when 
the Tennysons are to leave the house 
in which they had been brought up. 
With their dejoarture they seem to be 
parting with the old memories; and 
many sacred associations contend for 
mastery as every object of the landscape 
calls up old recollections. 

In part fifth, the family observe 
Hallam's birthday and Christmastide in 
a strange place. Tennyson determines 
that with new surroundings shall come 
a new purpose. He discovers that re- 
gret is dead, but love has survived. 
He has learned the lesson of sorrow, 
which is to broaden our sympathies. 



The Discipline of Sorrow 39 

He has learned the love of all mankind. 
He sees the purpose of all his discipline 
and triumphs in spite of his loss, which 
means that a greater gain has come to 
him. 

With Tennyson's triumph came the 
triumph of his age and generation, con- 
cerning the same problems. His poem 
has probably done more than any other 
one influence to confirm our belief in 
the unseen, and to strengthen our con- 
fidence in the 

" One living will which shall endure, 
When all that seems shall suffer shock." 



40 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

VI. 

THE KEWAKDS OF SUCCESS. 

THE period which we have desig- 
nated the Discipline of Sorrow 
has been spoken of as covering Tenny- 
son's hfe from the death of Hallam 
until the publication of "In Memoriam." 
This would give an interval of seventeen 
years. It must be remembered, how- 
ever, that the period ends with 1850, 
and the last few years are marked by 
the return of joy to his life, even as the 
story is recorded in " In Memoriam." 

Hallam died in 1833 ; and it was not 
until the appearance of Tennyson's col- 
lected poems, in 1843, that our poet 
again broke silence. This ten years 
was the real brooding time in which his 
mind was passing through the changes 



The Rewards of Success 41 

described in the preceding chapter. It 
seems to have been an era of hard 
work, during which he had taken him- 
self seriously in hand to perfect his 
poetic art. 

His progress during this time may be 
judged by the character of the work 
which he produced. In the volume of 
1843 we find such poems as " Locksley 
Hall," "Dora/' "Two Voices," "The 
Talking Oak," "Ulysses," "Sir Gala- 
had," "Launcelot and Guinevere," and 
"Mort d' Arthur." These poems show 
that the period had been one of severe 
discipline. Not only had circumstances 
been a schoolmaster, but he had evi- 
dently been still more rigorous in his 
own self-assigned tasks. 

The great crisis of his life, however, 
was still to come. He was induced to 
invest his patrimony in a worthless en- 
terprise, which resulted in utter failure. 
It seems that everything which he pos- 
sessed was lost in this venture. He 



42 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

suddenly found himself deprived of all 
his previous dependence for a livelihood. 
Without the discipline of practical life, 
he now regarded himself as almost abso- 
lutely helpless. He was so deeply per- 
suaded of this idea that he seemed to be 
utterly appalled and prostrated. His 
best friends despaired of his life. It was 
only after a year or two of the most care- 
ful attention that he finally was restored 
to comparative health and strength. 

It was during this period that the 
English government honored itself by 
bestowing upon him an annual pension 
of two hundred pounds. Never was a 
pension more timely. It is probable 
that we owe all his subsequent work to 
this kindly interposition. This pension 
was granted in 1845, in 1847 "The 
Princess" was published, and in 1850 
came " In Memoriam." 

The year 1850 marks a complete 
revolution in the affairs of Tennyson. 
From that year he is a different being. 



The Rewards of Success 43 

The discipline of sorrow has passed 
away; henceforth his Hfe is to wear 
another hue. He is now forty years 
old, but he still has more than half his 
life to live. The forty-two years still 
remaining all point back to this year 
1850 as the beginning of his new life, 
a life which is to be free from all his 
former cares. Success in its most at- 
tractive forms is henceforth to be his, — 
money, home, friends, fame, — best of 
all, happiness, peace. 

Three great and fortunate events 
mark the importance of this year. The 
first of these was the publication of " In 
Memoriam." By this event all doubt 
was forever removed as to the talent of 
Alfred Tennyson. " The Princess " had 
added much to his fame, though it was 
open to criticism. But with the appear- 
ance of " In Memoriam " all doubts 
were laid at rest. These two poems, 
added to those contained in the volume 
of 1843, were sufficient to establish his 



44 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

name as a poet of the first rank. 
Henceforth his books were sold by tens 
of thousands. 

The second of these occurrences was 
closely related to the first. Exactly in 
the middle of ^^In Memoriam" stands 
section lxyiii., which seems to have 
been almost prophetic. It describes his 
dream of the crown of thorns, which 
suddenly put forth leaves, and so be- 
came a crown of laurel : — 



''I dream'd there would be Spring no more, 
That Nature's ancient power was lost. 



*'I wandered from the noisy town, 

I found a wood with thorny boughs : 
I took the thorns to bind my brows, 
I wore them like a civic crown : 

"I met with scoffs, I met with scorns 

From youth and babe and hoary hairs 
They called me in the public squares 
The fool that wears a crown of thorns : 



The Rewards of Success 45 

*' They called me fool, they called me child: 
I found an angel of the night, 
The voice was low, the look was bright ; 
He looked upon my crown and smiled : 

" He reach'd the glory of a hand, 

That seemed to touch it into leaf : 
The voice was not the voice of grief ; 
The words were hard to understand." 

How long this poem may have been 
written before its publication we cannot 
tell. The entire work was published in 
1850, and it was in this same year that 
the laureateship was bestowed upon 
Tennyson by the Queen. From the 
time of publication until this occurrence 
would certainly be a swift fulfilment. 

As to the honor itself, there can be 
no doubt of its great value to Tennyson. 
The name of the previous incumbent, 
Wordsworth, as well as the character of 
his contestants for the office, united to 
make the position decidedly honorable. 
There had been several other candidates, 
including Browning and Leigh Hunt. 



46 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

Mrs. Browning also had been urged 
strongly for the position, and she cer- 
tainly would have made a worthy laure- 
ate. After all, the appointment seemed 
to fall naturally upon Tennyson. Rog- 
ers and Barry Cornwall did not compete, 
but Rogers's court suit, which had pre- 
viously been used by Wordsworth, was 
again brought into requisition for the 
presentation of Tennyson. 

The third of the fortunate events 
which mark this year was his marriage 
with Miss Emily Selwood. Tennyson 
had met Miss Selwood twenty years be- 
fore, and for ten years they had been 
engaged to be married. But with the 
long tarrying of the dark days of sor- 
row, the engagement had been annulled. 
Now with the return of sunshine it was 
renewed. Their marriage proved to be 
one of the most fortunate and happy of 
which we have knowledge. " From that 
day," says one of his letters, "peace 
entered into my life." 



The Rewards of Success 4 7 

The new houseliold was first estab- 
lished at Twiclvenham, where Pope had 
formerly lived. In 1853 they left 
Twickenham for Farringford on the Isle 
of Wight, where the family continued 
to reside, during the greater part of the 
year, for the remainder of their lives. 
He was now one of the best known men 
in England. All his surroundings were 
fortunate, and he was destined to exert 
an ever increasing influence for good 
upon the men of his generation. 

Browning has taught us that the dis- 
cipline of joy is no less important than 
the discipline of sorrow. Its influence 
upon us is probably far greater than the 
influence of adversity. Only we are not 
accustomed to think of joy as a disci- 
pline. Whether Browning is right, let 
him judge who knows the inner life of 
Mrs. Browning, and of Alfred Tennyson. 
The last forty years of Tennyson's life 
would seem to be a testimony to the 
correctness of Browning's doctrine. 



48 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 



YIL 
CONTACT WITH WORLD IDEAS. 

TENNYSON was now over forty 
years of age. He found himself 
in a position which brought him in close 
contact with the great world of human 
thought and human experience. Ever 
since the French Revolution the narrow 
barrier of national life and national 
thought had been breaking down. Ideas 
now passed from one nation to an- 
other with the utmost freedom. The 
comparative study of government and 
religion was fully inaugurated, and the 
scientific world was daily bringing forth 
its astounding discoveries. 

Tennyson was surrounded by a group 
of men who kept him in constant touch 
with the thought of the world, and that 



Contact with World Ideas 49 

of its wisest and best thinkers. He 
needed all their strength, and all their 
wisdom. It was not an ordinary world 
in the midst of which he was living. In 
many respects it was a most strenuous 
and agitating period ; especially so in 
the political and social life of England. 

The reaction against the French 
Revolution had stopped the progress of 
political reform, so far as England was 
concerned. It was now only by slow de- 
grees that conservative institutions could 
be changed. The Reform Bill of 1832 
marks the fact that until then England's 
institutions had remained very conserva- 
tive, not to say almost mediaeval. 

After 1832 one reform followed an- 
other in rapid succession until the gov- 
ernment had been peaceably revolution- 
ized. Each of those bills, however, was 
passed only after violent parliamentary 
agitation. For forty years the country 
was continually in a ferment, through 
the war of ideas. In the end England 



50 Tennysoii s Debt to Enviro7iment 

had changed from a government by the 
classes to a government by the people. 

Tennyson was a liberal, and a lover of 
progress. The part which he contributed 
to the solution of England's problems 
may be learned by reading his poems 
which deal with the reform movements. 
They are largely directed against the 
claims and the pretensions of the nobil- 
ity, — especially their arbitrary dictation 
in social affairs on account of their pride 
of birth and their greed for mammon. 

" Maud " shows the interference of a 
brother with the social rights of his sis- 
ter. " Locksley Hall " curses the social 
wrongs which warp us from the living 
truth. The hero loses his bride through 
the interposition of her family in behalf 
of her cousin. "Aylmer's Field" is a 
bitter denunciation of the pride of birth 
entertained by the parents, who interfere 
with the social rights of their daughter. 
Their folly not only causes her destruc- 
tion, but their own. All are engulfed 



Contact with World Ideas 51 

in the overwhelming fate which falls 
upon the house. 

Those who regard Tennyson as con- 
servative, must remember the difference 
between that day and ours. It required 
courage to champion the rights of men, 
as he did. For his day, he was very 
progressive. He was not extreme, but 
he was outspoken. The storm of wrath 
which some of his poems aroused has 
never been fully understood, until re- 
cently revealed in his " Life " written 
by his son. 

" The Princess " is his protest against 
mediaeval education. In it he contends 
stoutly for the co-ordinate progress of 
the sexes, at least in the matter of cul- 
ture. England's ideas of the education 
of woman at this time were very rudi- 
mentary. Practically, they had made 
no advance since the days of Shake- 
speare. " The Princess " was well calcu- 
lated to meet the existing state of the 
question, — not too radical to be read by 



52 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

the conservatives, and yet decidedly pro- 
gressive. Beneath the surface of its 
mildly satirical picture of woman's edu- 
cation was concealed a powerful protest 
in her favor. The art with which he 
contrives to retain the attention of both 
friend and foe is not always apjoarent 
from a casual reading. 

The emancipation of woman had 
made but little progress in Tennyson's 
day. He may not have contributed 
much to this end, but his ideas were 
certainly in advance of prevailing opin- 
ion. There is one respect, however, in 
which his view of womankind never can 
be excelled; that is, his reverential re- 
gard for her, and the ennobling and 
glorifying enthusiasm with which he 
treats the mutual love of man and 
woman. This is only what we should 
expect, when we remember his affection 
for his mother and for his wife, as well 
as all the story of his relations to his 
family. 



Contact with World Ideas 53 

But doubtless his greatest service to 
the cause of human progress was ren- 
dered in his " Idylls of the King." The 
simple qualities of heart which he there 
glorifies are the very foundation of 
human life. Keverence, loyalty, obedi- 
ence, were the watchwords round which 
these Idylls grew. They found their 
inspiration in the love of native land, of 
family, and of mankind. Loyalty to the 
home becomes the foundation of the 
state, and disloyalty, in even so private 
a relation as the family, becomes the 
cause of its disintegration. The nation 
is ruined and brought to destruction by 
the social vice of a single human being. 



54 Tennyson s Debt to E^ivironment 



VIII. 
THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE SEA. 

TENNYSON never forgot that he 
lived upon an island. Not only 
did he live upon an island^ but he spent 
a great part of his time upon its shore. 
His father had a summer home at 
Maplethorpe on the Lincolnshire coast. 
The acquaintance with the sea^ which 
he thus formed in his youth, became a 
still more powerful attraction in the 
later part of his life. 

His home at Freshwater on the Isle 
of Wight was within sight and sound of 
the Channel, and here he formed some of 
his most characteristic pictures of the sea. 
He always thought of the ocean as it ap- 
peared from the standpoint of the shore. 
He has correctly observed all its action 



The Environment of the Sea 55 

from this vantage ground, and has faith- 
fully described its varying moods. 

The description of a storm in "Sea 
Dreams" is a splendid reproduction of 
the real effect of stormy weather on the 
coast of Cornwall. He had examined 
both the sands and the sea-caves in his 
various journeys about Land's End. In 
front of Freshwater Bay, in the Isle of 
Wight, was a similar ledge of rock, 
which was slowly worn into sea-caves, 
and finally almost carried away by the 
action of the water. He had also vis- 
ited the western coast of Ireland, where 
the action of the waves was more violent 
than at any point on the English coast. 

In " In Memoriam," section cm., he 
gives almost his only picture of a voyage 
in which the observer leaves the shore. 
In the "Passing of Arthur," he certainly 
gives one voyage where the ship arrives 
on the other side. The description here 
is still limited, however, to his favorite 
method. Sir Bedivere, who is the only 



56 Tenitysofis Debt to Environment 

witness of this voyage, stands upon the 
land, and strains his eyes until the vessel 
fades to a mere speck and is lost in the 
distance. But after sight has failed, 
sound remains. He hears the sound of 
a great cry, faint, as from beyond the 
limit of the world, as if some far city 
were one voice around a king returning 
from his wars. 

Although his standpoint did not often 
vary from the land, nevertheless' his 
mind went out wherever the ocean 
reached, and wherever ships could sail. 
He seemed to think of his island home 
as thus connected with the world by 
water. No one could reach England, 
or depart from it, except by the sea. 
Hence it was that the sea became to 
him a necessary part of his mental 
furniture. 

Wordsworth had already taught us 
the comparison of the sea with the 
ocean of eternity, even to one living far 
inland. It remained for Tennyson to 



The Environment of the Sea 57 

carry out the idea by substituting the 
real ocean for the ocean of eternity. To 
his mind the sea was illimitable enough, 
and earthly distance great enough, with- 
out the idealization which had been 
added by Wordsworth. 

From his inshore standpoint, "cross- 
ing the bar " was the beginning of the 
voyage. Beyond that was the sea ; the 
known was remote enough, contingent 
enough, without going beyond the limit 
of the real. Finally, since every one 
must take this voyage at last, why re- 
gard it as unpleasant or why mourn un- 
duly for those who have gone upon it ? 

'' Sunset and evening star, 
And one clear call for me ! 
And may there be no moaning of the bar, 
When I put out to sea, 

' ' But such a tide as moving seems asleep, 
Too full for sound and foam, 
When that which drew from out the bound- 
less deep 
Turns agrain home. 



68 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

" Twilight and evening bell, 
And after that the dark ! 
And may there be no sadness of farewell, 
When I embark ; 

'' For tho' from out our bourne of Time and 
Place 
The flood may bear me far, 
I hope to see my Pilot face to face 
When I have crossed the bar." 



The Company of the Immortals 59 



IX. 

THE COMPANY OF THE 
IMMORTALS. 

NO part of Tennyson's teaching has 
done more to increase our respect 
for him than his protest against un- 
seemly ostentation in the burial of the 
dead. There is no doubt that his views 
have had a wide influence on public 
opinion. They were also rigidly car- 
ried out by his friends, when the time 
came for his own burial. 

The journey from Farringford to 
Westminster was accomplished in the 
simplest manner possible. The casket 
was placed on a road wagon belong- 
ing to the family ; the flowers which 
had been sent from all parts of Eng- 
land were heaped upon it, and an old 



60 Te7i7tysons Debt to Ejivironment 

servant led the horse to the railway 
station. 

On arriving in London the same sim- 
plicity was practised. The casket was 
placed on a covered van ; again the 
flowers were overspread and it was then 
driven to Westminster, without any in- 
dication of a procession. His wish had 
been respected, in every particular, in 
the plans thus carried out by his family. 

The public funeral of so distinguished 
a man could not be conducted without 
some attention to form. Nevertheless, 
the services in Westminster were ex- 
ceedingly simple and appropriate. His 
own poems, " Crossing the Bar " and 
" Silent Voices," were sung by the choir, 
to music written for the occasion. After 
the simple services for the dead, the pro- 
cession moved to the Poets' Corner, 
where the pavement had been raised 
next the grave of Browning. 

Before the casket was finally sealed, 
a package was placed within containing 



The Company of the Immortals 61 

the volume of Shakespeare's "Cymbe- 
line/* which the poet held in his hand 
when he was dying. Cymbeline was 
Shakespeare's contribution to the litera- 
ture of old British life, before the days 
of the Anglo-Saxon. Tennyson perhaps 
felt that this British thread united Cym- 
beline with his own British "Idylls of 
the King." 

The part, however, which Tennyson 
had been reading before his death was 
the song of the brothers at the funeral 
of Imogen. Her simple burial in the 
forest, where her brothers made her a 
grave among the leaves, was no more 
beautiful and natural than the wonder- 
ful song which they chanted over her 
dust. It was this song that Tennyson 
had loved. Certainly it is one of the 
most wonderful which Shakespeare ever 
produced; though no one else than Ten- 
nyson could have thought of the many 
reasons on account of which it would be 
dear to him. 



62 Tennyson's Debt to Environment 

Not the least of these, perhaps, may 
be found in the fact that Imogen was 
not really dead. In any case, it forms a 
golden link between the hearts of the 
two poets. It is something to think 
that a modern poet had chosen this as 
the last printed page on which his eyes 
should rest. There was also a deep 
significance in the happy thought by 
which the volume was enclosed with 
him, at the last moment. 

*' Fear no more the heat o' the sun, 
Nor the furious winter's rages ; 
Thou thy worldly task hast done, 
Home are gone, and ta'en thy wages. 

* ' Fear no more the frown o' the great, 
Thou art past the tyrant's stroke, 
Care no more to clothe, and eat; 
To thee the reed is as the oak. 

" Fear no more the lightning-flash, 

Nor the all-dreaded thunder-stone ; 
Fear not slander, censure rash ; 
Thou hast finished joy and moan. 



The Company of the Immortals 63 

' ' No exerciser harm thee ! 

Nor no witchcraft charm thee ! 
Ghost uulaid forbear thee! 

Nothing ill come near thee ! 
Quiet consummation have; 
And renowned be thy grave ! " 



pavt II. 

STUDY OF THE POEMS. 



I. 

STUDY OF THE MINOR POEMS. 

Chapter HI. — The Influence of Nature. 

Read: Ode to Memory; The Brook; 
Song, — The Owl ; Second Song to the 
same ; The Northern Farmer (old style) ; 
The Northern Cobbler; The Miller's 
Daughter; The Gardener's Daughter; 
Dora ; Locksley Hall ; Edwin Morris, or 
The Lake; Isabel is his mother, as is 
also the mother of the Prince in The 
Princess. Sections c, ci., and cii. of 
In Memoriam are a description of Som- 
ersby; A Farewell is his farewell to 
Somersby Brook. 

Chapter IV.— The Inspiration of Eomance. 

Read: The Lady of Shalott; The 
Day Dream; Sir Galahad; Sir Laun- 



68 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

celot and Guinevere ; Mort d' Arthur. 
The above are the early studies of the 
Arthurian Romances. For the later 
ones read the Idylls of the King (see 
Study of, in Chapter III. of Part II.). 

Chapter V. — The Discipline of Sorrow. 

Read : " Break, Break, Break " ; Sea 
Dreams ; Two Voices ; In Memoriam 
(see Study of, in next chapter) ; " Come 
not when I am dead.'* 

Chapter VI. — The Eewards of Success. 

Read: The Lyrics in Maud; The 
Lyrics in the Princess, which were added 
in 1850; also the patriotic poems which 
were written after his appointment as 
Laureate : Ode on the Death of the 
Duke of Wellington; Britons Guard 
Your Own ; Hands All Round ; Charge 
of the Light Brigade; The Defence of 
Lucknow. 



Study of the Minor Poems 69 

Chapter VII. — Contact With World 
Ideas. 

Eead : The Princess ; Maud ; Aylmer's 
Field; Locksley Hall; Locksley Hall 
Sixty Years After ; On Cambridge Uni- 
versity; Vastness; The Palace of Art; 
Despair ; The Idylls of the King. 

Chapter VIII. — The Environment of 
THE Sea. 

Read: Ulysses; The Lotos Eaters; 
Enoch Arden ; sections ix. to XYii. of In 
Memoriam; Sea Dreams; The Fleet; 
The Revenge, A Ballad of the Fleet; 
Crossing the Bar; The Passing of 
Arthur. 

Chapter IX. — The Company of The 
Immortals. 

Read: Tiresias; The Ancient Sage; 
Ulysses ; Sir Galahad ; The Holy Grail ; 
The second division of In Memoriam, — 
sections xxviii. to lvii. ; DeProfundis; 
The Human Cry; To Dante; To Virgil; 
To Victor Hugo ; Silent Voices. 



70 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 



II. 

THE STUDY OP " IN MEMORIAM." 

' ' In Memoriam " is really a series of poems. 
For convenience it may be better to designate 
each poem as a section, since they are num- 
bered consecutively. 

PAET FIEST. 

THE FIRST RESULTS OF BEREAVEMENT. 

PART First includes twenty-seven 
sections. The first four sections 
describe the depressing effect of sorrow. 
The next four contain the same idea 
together with the advice of injudicious 
friendsj and the influence of accustomed 
objects as reminders of the departed. 
With section ix. begins the considera- 
tion of the ship which bears the dust 
of Hallam from Italy to England. Ten- 



The Skidy of '' In Memoriam " 71 

nyson represents himself as standing 
on the shore of England, and looking 
out, by the power of vision, to observe 
the progress of the vessel. 

In section xi. he prays for calm 
weather, as in harmony with the still- 
ness which holds the noble dead. In 
XII., XIII., and xiv. he expresses his 
impatience and unconscious dissatisfac- 
tion at the result of the very thing for 
which he had prayed. That is, he is 
anxious for the ship to come to Eng- 
land, and he has also prayed for calm 
weather, but the two desires cannot be 
harmonized. 

In XV. he gives a beautiful description 
of a storm : 

" The winds begin to rise 
And roar from yonder dropping day." 

He describes the storm by its effect 
upon the land; keeping up the situa- 
tion in which he stands upon the 
shore looking out upon the sea. In 



72 Teiinysons Debt to Envh^onme^tt 

XVI. he discovers the inharmonious 
character of the two desires referred 
to above. He sees that the storm is 
really what he ought to wish, since the 
calm air never can bring the ship to 
England. 

Section xvii. records the arrival of 
the ship, and his blessing upon it for 
having brought the precious relics back 
to his native land. In xviii. he rejoices 
that the burial may be in English earth, 
instead of in the sea. Section xix. re- 
veals the English rivers which now 
take the place of the Danube, since he 
has been buried within sight and sound 
of their waters. 

Sections xx. and xxi. show how sor- 
row becomes a master passion, although 
it may not be understood by those 
who behold it. From xxii. on to the 
end of Part First, he reviews the story 
of the life which he and Hallam had 
lived together on earth. In spite of the 
sweetness of their companionship, and 



The Study of'^In Memorzam " 73 

the bitterness of his bereavement, he 
nevertheless closes with the comforting 
belief that 

'' 'Tis better to have loved and lost, 
Thau never to have loved at all." 



PAET SECOND. 

THE PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE LIFE. 

Part Second includes sections xxYiii. 
to LVii. Its general subject is " How 
fares it with the happy dead?" This 
question is brought up by the coming of 
Christmas, which constrains them to 
make this inquiry of the missing one, in 
sections xxviii. to xxx. 

Sections xxxi. and xxxii. refer to 
Mary at the Resurrection of Lazarus. 
Section xxxiii. shows the possible mis- 
take of even a high-minded sceptic who 
should doubt man's immortality. Sec- 
tion xxxiY. shows what life would be if 
man were not immortal. In xxxv. he 
rejoices that love came first, and death 



74 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

afterwards, since now death has no 
power to destroy love. Section xxxvi. 
shows why the Word was made flesh. 
Section xxxvii. shows the difference be- 
tween the voice of nature and of revela- 
tion with regard to man's immortality. 

Sections xxxviii. to xlyiii. give vari- 
ous suggestions as to the answer of the 
main question, " How fares it with the 
happy dead ? " Sections xl. to xlii., 
Do they continue to grow, to advance, 
and shall we be left behind ? Section 
XLiii., Or do they rest unconscious ? 
Section xliy.. Do they remember the 
earth ? Section xly., Only one child- 
hood for both worlds. Section xlyi.. 
We see only the earth; they see both 
worlds. Sections xlyii. and xlyiii., Is 
Buddhism true ? 

In L. he wishes that the dead might 
again be with him. In li. he questions 
that wish. Do we indeed desire their 
presence in our life ? Is there no hidden 
flaw which we would hide ? In lii. he 



The Study of'In Memoriam " 75 

answers, Yes, we really desire their 
presence, since tlieir love is noble, and 
sufficient to overlook our imperfections. 
This leads him to hope that God will do 
the same for our infirmities, and that 
every Winter may be changed to Spring. 
This noble expression of his larger hope, 
as given in liv., becomes the culminat- 
ing of the second part of the poem. 
Indeed, it is the very heart of the 
work. 

Notwithstanding this high confidence 
that "good will be the final goal of ill," 
he nevertheless recognizes the difficul- 
ties which obstruct its consummation. 
Sections lv. and lyi. admit the harsh 
character of nature's law, and the un- 
thinking destruction wherewith she has 
blotted out many types, seeming to us 
to care but little for life of any kind. 
But he still thinks that man must be 
an exception, else he would be a mon- 
ster, a dream, a discord. 



76 Tennyson s Debt to Enviro^iment 

PAET THIED. 
THE CHASTENING POWER OF SORROW. 

Part Third includes sections LViii. to 
Lxxyii. It may be said that the first 
two grand divisions of the poem describe 
the dark side of sorrow. Similarly, the 
last two grand divisions describe its 
brighter side. Part Third is the transi- 
tion, and naturally it partakes of the 
character of both. 

Section LViii. is transitional; and Lix. 
expresses the subject of the division : 
" Sorrow shall change her garb." Since 
Sorrow must remain with him and con- 
trol his life, she shall at least assume a 
more pleasing exterior. In harmony 
with this general subject sections LX. 
and Lxi. express his faith that Hallam 
is better off than if he had remained on 
earth. In this much he discerns his 
resignation. I am content to be his 
lover, from this lower estate. " Nor 



The Study of '' In MemoriamT 77 

can the soul of Shakespeare love thee 
more.'* 

Section lxii., I would not call him 
back to my small life. Section Lxiii., 
Still, he may sympathize with my pain 
and my littleness. Section Lxiv., The 
past may claim his thoughts at times. 
Section lxv., A part of my life may 
live in him. Section Lxvi., Does he 
wonder at my lightness, like one with 
any trifle pleased ? 

Section lxyii., The moonlight on 
Hallam's tablet in the church at Cleve- 
don. Tennyson had so arranged his 
own sleeping room that the fact de- 
scribed in the first stanza was true. 
Section lxviii., In dreams he also sees 
Hallam as living, and never as dead. 
This is a natural law, by which we al- 
ways remember the stronger impression, 
probably because the earlier. 

Section Lxix., His dream of the fool 
that wears a crown of thorns. The 
vision of an angel that reached the 



78 Tennyson s Debt to E7ivironme7it 

glory of a hand, and touched his thorny 
crown into leaf. This section, which 
stands exactly in the middle of the 
poem, is the dividing line, in case one 
wishes to use the simplest possible 
division of the poem into two parts. 

Sections Lxx. and Lxxi. describe other 
characteristics of his dreams about 
Hallam. Sections Lxxii., lxxiii. and 
LxxiY. mark the second anniversary of 
Hallam's death. Section lxxy. ex- 
presses his faith that Hallam's deeds 
are sufficiently applauded in the other 
world, hence he will pronounce no eu- 
logy upon him here. Section lxxvi., 
Earthly fame is too fleeting to be wor- 
thy of eulogy. Section lxxyii.. Obliv- 
ion soon obscures the work of man. 

PAET rOUETH. 

THE SUSTAINING POWER OF SORROW. 

Part Fourth includes sections lxxyiii. 
to cm. It is the beginning of an en- 



The Study of '^ In Memoriam " 79 

tirely new departure, which speaks of 
returning health and renewed interest in 
life. It shows that trust in things above 
is not dimmed by sorrow, but sustained. 

Sections Lxxviii. and Lxxix., The sec- 
ond Christmas, reminds him of the per- 
fect character of their affection. " More 
than my brothers are to me," because 
they were of the same mould ; whereas 
Hallam was different, complementary. 
Section lxxx. supposes the circumstances 
had been reversed, and Tennyson had 
been removed. Then he doubts not that 
Hallam would have turned his burden 
into gain. " Hence I must do the same." 
Section lxxxi.. The sudden frost of 
death gives ripeness to the grain. Sec- 
tion Lxxxii., But it also brings separa- 
tion ; this separation is the only feud he 
wages with Death. 

Sections lxxxiii. and lxxxiy., The 
second New Year, causes him to think 
once more of what might have been had 
Hallam lived, but his thoughts are no 



80 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

longer morose, it is rather a prophecy of 
a genial life of letters which they cer- 
tainly would have lived but for this 
interruption. This is the last sombre 
note. The two remaining grand divis- 
ions contain nothing further but hope 
and courage. 

In section Lxxxv. his sister inquires 
of him whether his love for Hallam has 
drained his capability of love. Whether 
he could not love some one else ; this 
time a woman, as his answer implies. 
He responds with the long and beauti- 
ful poem on " Friendship/' which closes 
with the poem " To the Sea at Twi- 
light/' contained in Lxxxvi. Sections 
LXXXYii., LxxxYiii., and lxxxix. de- 
scribe a return to Cambridge Univer- 
sity, where all things remind him of the 
friendships of the past, but without any 
thoughts of gloom. 

With section xc. begins the second 
phase of the sustaining power of sorrow. 
That is, the sj)iritual communion with 



The Study of ''In Memoriam " 81 

the departed. He first raises tlie ques- 
tion, " What^ if they came back ? '' 
Section xci., If so, then come in the 
springtime and in the warm sunshine ; 
not in the winter, nor in the night. 
Section xcii., Can they so return ? Sec- 
tion xciii., We dare not say they can- 
not ; and we wish they might. Section 
xciv., The kind of heart which one must 
have to hold communion with the dead. 
Section xcv., Tennyson's experience of 
such an actual communion with the spirit 
of Hallam. Section xcvi., The nature 
of doubt, and the use of doubt. Sections 
xcvii. and xcviii.. Where has Hallam 
been since he has left us ? 

Sections c. to cm., Leaving the old 
home at Somersby, — the most touching 
part of the poem. When Tennyson 
comes to bid good-bye to the old home 
in which he had been brought up, he 
finds that every object in the country- 
side reminds him of two men, who are 
rivals in his own heart, — rivals in a 

6 



82 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

losing game. His father and Hallam 
seem to have equal claim on his recollec- 
tion, in connection with all these objects. 
The group closes with the remarkable 
dream in cm. concerning their voyage 
and their meeting with Hallam. 

PART FIFTH. 

REJOICING IN THE VICTORY OF FAITH AND 
LOVE. 

Part Fifth describes his return to full 
health and soundness. Sections ciY. to 
cvi. find the Tennyson s in a strange 
home at the occurrence of the third 
Christmas. The group opens with the 
remarkable lyric in cvi., 

''Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky," 

wherein he determines that with new 
surroundings shall come a new view of 
life; and that regret, which saps the 
mind, shall no longer control him. 

In cvii. they keep Hallam' s birthday, 
not sorrowfully, but with festive cheer, 



The Study of ''In Memoriam " 83 

with books and music. In cviii. he 
gives the keynote of this section, — 

" I will not shut me from my kind, 

I will not eat my heart alone." 

Instead of this he will think of Hal- 
lam as still living, a noble man, full of 
heart affluence of discursive talk. Sec- 
tion ex,, Influence of a noble man upon 
others. Section cxi., His outward graces ; 
the gentleman versus the churl. Section 
cxii.. His powers of mind. Section 
cxiii., his character in public life. Sec- 
tion cxiv., his combination of knowledge 
with reverence. 

With CXY. he celebrates the coming of 
Spring. The Winter of sorrow and re- 
gret has gone by, and it is again Spring- 
time in his heart as well as in Nature. 
Section cxvi.. Trust in that which made 
the world fair, leads him to hope that 
life shall again be fair. Sections cxyii. 
and cxYiii., he also trusts that those we 
call dead "are breathers of an ampler 



84 Tennyson s Debt to Environme7it 

day." Section cxix., He again visits 
Hallam's home, which formerly seemed 
so deserted, but now nature makes it 
beautiful. 

Section cxx., He rejoices in the battle, 
now that it is over. He feels sure that 
man is not made to perish. Section 
cxxi., He sees his friend in the morning 
and in the evening star ; and in cxxii. 
he feels that he will be with him in a 
larger world. Section cxxiii., In sjoite 
of all the change which earth has seen, 
the spirit of man will remain the same. 

Section cxxiv.. He rejoices that our 
confidence in the future is a matter of 
feeling, or direct knowledge ; instead of 
a matter of intellection, which is only 
mediate, or secondary knowledge. In 
cxxv., he regrets some bitter notes which 
his harp had sounded. He has no bitter- 
ness now. 

In cxxvi., cxxvii., and cxxviii. he 
rejoices that love is the final goal of all. 
In spite of all disquietudes of earth, his 



The Study of '' In Memoriam " 85 

faith teaches him that all is well. And 
all will be well in the future, no matter 
what eddies shall yet be made in the on- 
ward flood. Sections cxxix. and cxxx. 
are directly addressed to Hallam, who 
still retains his personality, though he 
may have become one with God and 
Nature. Section cxxxi. is his address to 
God the Father. 

The Epilogue is a marriage hymn to 
his sister. It is not disconnected from 
the main unity of the poem, but is 
closely bound to the highest unity of 
Part Fifth, in which he states his return- 
ing interest in earthly life and in earthly 
living. While written for his sister, it 
is his own hymn of rejoicing in his own 
new life, full of confidence and hope. It 
celebrates love, which is the strongest 
ground of faith and hope. 



86 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 



III. 

THE STUDY OF THE IDYLLS OF 
THE KING. 

" ^T^HE IDYLLS " must not be read 
X in the order in which they were 
published, but in the order in which 
they are taken up in the following 
pages, which is now generally recog- 
nized as their natural relation. 

The unity of the series is discoverable 
in two ways. First, in the gradual 
development of the story of one great 
sin, which runs through the entire series, 
and slowly undermines all the moral 
forces of the state. The second tie 
which binds the entire series is the 
unity of time. The story runs through 
the changing seasons of one entire year, 
from new year to new year. 



Study of the ''Idylls of the King "87 

In studying the " Idylls of the King " 
it is best to discard the allegory, or at 
least to defer it as of secondary impor- 
tance. The art value of the poems is 
to be found by making the characters 
human. Therefore, we should think of 
them as real men and women. If they 
could be accurately located in time and 
place, it would be much better for our 
art progress. We might better dismiss 
all question of probability, and view 
them simply as romance, rather than 
spend our time puzzling their meaning 
as vague and colorless allegories. 

That is to say, they ought to be con- 
sidered first as stories. In so far as 
they are works of art, they were created 
by the imagination; therefore let the 
imagination revivify them. Thus re- 
created they become the art property of 
any one who studies them. 

The first Idyll, " The Coming of Ar- 
thur," has so much that is allegorical, 
that it might be well enough to consider 



88 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

the symbolism with reference to a few 
of the principal characters. Arthur is 
not simply an old British king, he also 
represents the human soul, or the 
national soul of Britain. All question- 
ings about his birth are simply the 
questions which arise concerning the 
origin of the soul. 

Merlin, on the other hand, represents 
the human intellect, or the intellect 
assisted by the power of science. The 
Lady of the Lake is Religion. The 
three Queens are the three Christian 
virtues of Faith, Hope, and Charity. 
All the remaining characters are better 
understood by considering them from 
the standpoint of the story, simply as 
human beings. That is, by reading 
the story in its primary and apparent 
sense. 

Arthur comes to establish the reign of 
law, after the departure of the Romans 
had left the country in disorder. There- 
fore the knights are required to take the 



study of the ''Idylls of the King "89 

usual vows of chivalry, and unite with 
him in forming the state. The usual 
questions with regard to rank are to be 
observed, in order that his state may 
serve the real purpose for which it was 
founded. 

" Gareth and L3Tiette " is a story 
illustrating the successful establishment 
of this knightly order. The knights are 
true to their vows of manliness, gentle- 
ness, faithfulness, and obedience. Gareth 
achieves the quest which falls to him by 
obedience to the common ideals which 
govern all the knights. In his career 
the allegory is more easily discerned 
than in any other of the Idylls; but 
that should not be alloAved to divert the 
attention from its plain significance as 
a romantic story. 

'' The Marriage of Geraint " is another 
idyllic story illustrating the success and 
moral splendor of Arthur's reign. As a 
story alone it is interesting and beauti- 
ful. Its literary merit is to be found 



90 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

by seeking to feel and know these ele- 
ments of beauty for their own sake. 
Fortunately, it is not encumbered with 
any allegorical significance which re- 
quires, or even invites, an explanation. 
It is now incorporated with the next 
Idyll. 

^'Geraint and Enid" is another ro- 
mantic story, full of incident and 
adventure. As before, the story is self- 
revealing. The only point which we 
need to remember with reference to its 
unity with the other poems of the se- 
ries is Geraint's reason for leaving the 
court. His evil suspicions of his wife 
were aroused by rumors of the Queen's 
disloyalty. 

"Balin and Balan " shows the strength 
which these rumors have gained. The 
brothers lose their lives from the fact 
that their recent coming to the court 
had prevented their both becoming 
acquainted with the current report. 
Though written the last of the Idylls, 



Study of the ''Idylls of the King " 91 

this one is really the key on which the 
action turns. Without it we should be 
uncertain as to the cause of the moral 
decay which now becomes suddenly 
apparent. 

" Merlin and Vivien " might be consid- 
ered almost a digression from the main 
story. It is really a concession to the 
necessity of the allegory. It shows that 
intellect alone is not a sufficient founda- 
tion for moral uprightness. Vivien, 
where no heart is, furnishes a contrast 
with Enid the true wife, and a foil to 
Guinevere the false wife. Thus show- 
ing that intellect must be allied with 
the heart, in order to produce moral 
excellence. 

" Launcelot and Elaine " carries on the 
main plot of the story. It is a tragedy 
wherein the bitter results of sin are 
made apparent, through the deeds of 
the chief actors. All the principal 
threads of the plot are united in this 
Idyll. The action would naturally fall 



92 Teitnysofis Debt to Environment 

quickly from this point to the final ca- 
tastrophe, if the original story had been 
followed. 

The direct action, however, is super- 
seded by the Idyll of " The Holy Grail." 
This digression was brought into the 
story as late as the twelfth century. It 
shows the willingness of the knights to 
follow delusions and superstitions rather 
than the plain path of duty. Neverthe- 
less, it is a beautiful digression. It 
shows the ideal man in the pursuit of 
noble ends. It is a worthy ambition for 
a Percival, but too vague and mystic 
for most of the other knights. 

" Pelleas and Ettarre " returns to the 
main action. Its shameful story shows 
the wide spread extent of moral cor- 
ruption among the knights. It shows 
conclusively why the j)ursuit of the 
" Holy Grail " came too late. No merely 
external aim could counteract the deep 
corruption of heart which now was 
spreading like a virus. 



Study of the ''Idylls of the King " 93 

In "The Last Tournament" the action 
tends rapidly to its conclusion. The 
King is absent in a quest, and no one 
avenges the open scoffs with which 
Launcelot is greeted as President of the 
Tournay. He has no desire to defend 
himself, even against open insult. Evi- 
dently the glory of the " Round Table " 
has departed. 

" Guinevere " is the most splendid Idyll 
of the twelve. It is unsurpassed in our 
literature for purely human interest. 
Nothing can exceed the nobility which 
is here revealed in the character of 
Arthur. The sad part of the story is 
quickly told, but the tragedy of the 
final meeting of Arthur and Guinevere 
cannot be told in language. Tennyson 
here shows his power to suggest more 
than he delineates. The hazy nebulous 
picture of the two great souls is Miltonic 
in its grandeur. Arthur is as great as 
his own ideals, but Guinevere is more 
human. Her real womanliness comes 



94 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

out more strongly than in any previous 
Idyll. 

" The Passing of Arthur/' with which 
the story ends, is the most epical of the 
series. Its strength and simplicity are 
marvellous. The air of mystery, which 
again comes into the life of Arthur car- 
ries the poem into a very high spiritual 
realm. It is worthy to follow the pre- 
ceding Idyll ; and that is honor enough. 
It is also a worthy conclusion of the 
great series. It leaves us full of admira- 
tion for our old British Mythology. We 
are glad that we have such a heritage. 
We are doubly glad that Tennyson has 
ennobled and glorified it. He has re- 
vealed to us our own, and that too a 
part of our own which is older than the 
Anglo-Saxon. 



A Tennyson Chronology 95 



A TENNYSON CHEONOLOGY. 



1809. Alfred Tennyson, fourth son of the 
Rev. George Clayton and Elizabeth Fitch 
Tennyson, born at Somersby, Aug. 6th. 
The children of the Tennyson family were 
as follows : — 

George, May, 1806-1806, born at Tealby. 
Frederick, June, 1807- " Louth. 

Charles, July, 1808-1879, " Somersby. 
Alfred, Aug. 6, 1809-1892, 
Mary, Sept., 1810-1884, 
Emilia, Oct., 1811-1889, 

(Engaged to A. H. Hallam, d. 1833.) 
Edward, Jan., 1813-1890, born at Somersby 
Arthur, May, 1814- 
Septimus, Sept., 1815-1866, 
Matilda, Sept., 1816- 
Cecilia, Oct., 1817- 
Horatio, Sept., 1819- 



1816-1820. In Louth Grammar School. 



96 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

1827. Poems by Two Brothers, Charles and 
Alfred. 

1828. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge. 

1830. Poems, . chiefly Lyrical, by Alfred 
Tennyson. 

1831. Left Cambridge in February. His 
father died in March. 

1833. Poems by Alfred Tennyson. Dated 

'33, but appeared before the opening of 

the year, and hence are sometimes called 

the edition of '32. 
1833. Death of Arthur Hallam at Vienna, 

Sept. 15th. 
1837. The Tennyson family left Somersby 

for High Beach, in Epping Forest, near 

London. 
1842. Poems by Alfred Tennyson, in two 

vols., 12mo. Second edition, '43 ; third, 

'45 ; fourth, '46 ; fifth, '48 ; sixth, '50 ; 

seventh, '51 ; eighth, '53. 
1845. Received a pension of two hundred 

pounds through Sir Robert Peel. 
1847. The Princess. Second edition, '48; 

third, '50 ; fourth, '51 ; fifth, '53. Songs 

added in '50. 



A Te7znyson Chronology 97 

1850. In Memoriam. On June 13th was 
married to Miss Emily Selwood. Nov. 
19th appointed Poet Laureate. 

1855. Maud, and Other Poems. 

1859. Published the first four Idylls of the 
King. These were Enid, Elaine, Vivien;- 
and Guinevere. Ten thousand copies 
sold in six weeks. 

1860. Enoch Arden. 

1869. The Holy Grail; The Coming and 
Passing of Arthur ; Pelleas and Ettarre. 
Forty thousand copies ordered in advance 
of publication. 

1871. The Last Tournament. 

1872. Gareth and Lynette. Collected Works 
in seven volumes. 

1875-84. The Dramas: Queen Mary, Har- 
old, The Cup, The Falcon, The Promise 
of May, Becket. 

1885. Tiresias Volume : Balin and Balan ; 
and Other Poems. 

1886. Locksley Hall Sixty Years After; 
Complete Works in ten volumes. 

1889. Demeter, and Other Poems. Twenty 
thousand copies sold in first week. 



98 Tennyson s Debt to Environment 

1892. The Foresters, Robin Hood, and 

Maid Marian. 
1892. Died, October 6th, at 1.35 a. m. 
1892. The Silent Voices, published Oct. 

12th, together with the order of services 

in Westminster Abbey. 
1892. Oct. 28th, The Death of (Enone, Ak- 

bar's Dream, and Other Poems. 



Bibliography 99 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The best books on Tennyson are : — 

First of all, "Alfred, Lord Tennyson: A 

Memoir by his Son." 
''Tennyson and his Relation to Modern 

Life." S. A. Brooke. 
" The Poetry of Tennyson." Henrv Van 

Dyke. 
" Tennyson : Poet, Philosopher, Idealist." 

J. C. Walters. 
" Tennyson : A Biographical Sketch." 

Alfred Waugh. 

On the Idylls of the King the fol- 
lowing : — 

" The Growth of the Idylls of the King." 
Richard James. 

" Tennyson's Idylls of the King and Ar- 
thurian Story." M. W. Maccallum. 

"Essays on Tennyson's Idylls of the 
King." Littledale. 



100 Tennysoiis Debt to Environment 

On In Memoriam : — 

" Prolegomena to In Memoriam.'' Thomas 
Davidson. 

" Tennyson's In Memoriam." Joseph 
Jacobs. 

" Tennyson's In Memoriam, its Purpose 
and Structure." J. F. Genung. 

" A Companion to In Memoriam." Eliza- 
beth Rachel Chapman. 



